geneza: Rhetoric

Evidence: 100 • authority: 72

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It is one of the three ancient arts of discourse (trivium) of classical antiquity, along with grammar and logic/dialectic. As an academic discipline within the humanities, rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or writers use to inform, persuade, and motivate their audiences. Rhetoric also provides heuristics for understanding, discovering, and developing arguments for particular situations. Aristotle defined rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion", and since mastery of the art was necessary for victory in a case at law, for passage of proposals in the assembly, or for fame as a speaker in civ…

Evidence: 23 • authority: 62

Rhetoric education is studied as part of the history of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, of educational traditions and universities in the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, etc. The study of traditions is important, and here are just a few sources in which information about schools of rhetoric can be found. We agree with these views that rhetoric training is part of a system where there is a conceptualisation of the importance of complex and gradual formation of future orators, politicians and statesmen in Antiquity. We briefly provide additional information on the traditions of rhetoric training and, in particular: Before presenting them, we point to scholars’ opinions of on the role of rhetoric training, on its place in cultural traditions and society, and on the elitist character of oratory training in Antiquity.

Evidence: 23 • authority: 77

During and after the Renaissance, rhetoric dominated education in the humanities in England , Scotland , and France , remaining little changed until the later 19c. During this period, the ancient tension between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ rhetoric continued, as the following extracts indicate. The first, from The Schoolmaster ( Roger Ascham, 1563), praises Cicero and everything Latinate; the second, from Hudibras ( Samuel Butler, 1663) mocks the ornate and empty: Ascham . There is a way, touched in the first book of Cicero De oratore , which, wisely brought into schools, truly taught, and constantly used, would not only take wholly away this butcherly fear in making of Latins but would also, with ease and pleasure and in short time, as I know by good experience, work a true choice and placing of words, a right ordering of sentences, an easy understanding of the tongue, a readiness to speak, a facility to write, a true judgment both of his own and other men's doings, what tongue soever he doth use. Butler . For rhetoric, he could not ope His mouth but out there flew a trope; And when he happened to break off In the middle of his speech, or cough, He had hard words ready to show why, And tell what rules he did it by. The fragmentation of rhetoric that began in the Renaissance created whole new subjects in succeeding centuries. The third and fourth canons ( elocution and pronunciation ) became in the 18c courses in ‘proper’ speech, taught by actors like Thomas Sheridan and John Walker, both of whom published pronouncing dictionaries of English. During the 17–19c, the methods of Cicero and Quintilian were standard in British and American universities. Yet, while students learned the classical languages and their rhetoric, their teachers were often in the forefront of change to English. The Scottish scholar Adam Smith chose English rather than Latin when giving his lectures; his friend Hugh Blair was appointed to the first chair of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres at the U. of Edinburgh in 1762, the precursor of all chairs of English language and literature around the world. In 1806, the first Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard, Massachusetts, was John Quincy Adams (later sixth US president). He was charged to instruct students in accordance with the models and exercises of Quintilian, but when Francis J. Child occupied the same chair in 1851, it was as Professor of English. In 18c society at large, issues of judgement and taste became more important than aesthetics and rhetoric, and among Romantics in the 18c and 19c freedom and feeling were more intriguing than discipline and refinement. As the 19c progressed, the ancient theorists became of less and less interest, except to classical scholars, and rhetoric became for many either the (empty) forms of public speaking or the study of writing and composition in schools. Some of the ancient aims and practices were, however, sustained in the debating societies of British universities and the departments of speech and public address in US colleges. Conclusion An ancient discipline of Greek and Latin origins established originally for pleadings in law, politics, and international commerce, the rhetorical theories of Cicero, Quintilian, St. Augustine (354 – 430 CE), and especially Aristotle proved to be of central importance to all of human communication, including scientific communication, and became the foundation for liberal education in Europe for more than twenty centuries. The influence of rhetoric was particularly strong in the medieval university trivium , of which St. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225 – 1274) is a product. The trivium was organized around three basic subjects: grammar (that is, words, word order, phonics, sentence structure, and the like), logic (syllogism, cause and effect, quality versus quantity, and so forth), and rhetoric — with rhetoric presiding as queen and lord. Rhetoric was not a mere synthesis of grammar and logic, though partly it was; rhetoric provided fundamental training in strategic theories of persuasion. It gave students practice in the arts of persuasion and good citizenship that would be necessary for success in later pursuits, such as immediately in the quadrivium (the study of mathematics, science, and music) and followed by (at least for some students) investigations in philosophy, theology, and public service. Compared to today ’ s four- or five-step handbooks on “ valid ” scientific method, the handbooks of rhetoric appear, like scientific argument itself, copious. In Aristotle ’ s On Rhetoric alone, one can identify several scores of distinct strategies for argument and proof, and literally thousands more of unique “ commonplaces ” (or topoi ) — that is, general and particular sites of knowledge and belief — for use in designing arguments (Aristotle [c. 350 BCE] 1991). The sum of the permutations, a subset of all the available means of persuasion, is immense. The first formal discussions of the art of rhetoric in the Western tradition emerged in the fifth century b.c.e. in Greece, though more ancient texts of Chinese and Jewish origin as well the works of Homer indicate that there was an even earlier interest in speech making. The growing use of the courts to adjudicate disputes, such as those concerning property ownership, prompted by political changes in Sicily, led to the increasing use of oral public argument that was aimed to produce a decision that was favorable to an advocate. Some individuals began to observe that there were standard practices or lines of argument that were successful. Recognizing that people would pay to learn these strategies, these individuals began to

Evidence: 23 • authority: 88

The Rhetoric of Medicine. The Rhetoric of Medicine explores problems that confront medical professionals today by first examining similar problems that confronted physicians in ancient Greece. This framework provides illuminating entry points into issues in the practice of medicine, enabling readers to understand more clearly their shape and operation in the modern context—as well as their possible solutions. Topics covered include larger cultural ideas about the body, the problems posed to physicians by working for money, how to compete with alternative healthcare providers, the restrictions on political involvement that come with identifying as a physician, how to maintain the autonomy an…

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Evidence: — • authority: 72

The history of education extends at least as far back as the first written records recovered from ancient civilizations. Historical studies have included virtually every nation. The earliest known formal school was developed in Egypt's Middle Kingdom under the direction of Kheti, treasurer to Mentuhotep II (2061–2010 BC). In ancient India, education was mainly imparted through the Vedic and Buddhist learning system, while the first education system in ancient China was created in the Xia dynasty (2076–1600 BC). In the city-states of ancient Greece, most education was private, except in Sparta. For example, in Athens, during the 5th and 4th centuries BC, aside from two years military trainin…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

Liberal arts education (from Latin liberalis 'free' and ars 'art or principled practice') is a traditional academic course in Western higher education, which traditionally covers the natural and formal sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities. Liberal arts takes the term art in the sense of a learned skill rather than specifically the fine arts. Liberal arts education can refer to studies in a liberal arts degree course or to a university education more generally. Such a course of study contrasts with those that are principally vocational, professional, or technical, as well as religiously based courses. The term liberal arts for an educational curriculum dates back to classical anti…

Evidence: — • authority: 88

The influence of Islamic modernization on Islamic education in Egypt in the early 19th century. Education is essential in the life of a society because, through it, people can learn science and technology. Modernization in Islamic education needs to be carried out to catch up with backwardness in all fields in Egypt. This article aims to describe the history of Islam and the modernization of Islamic education in Egypt. Starting from modern ideas from the West brought by the colonizing nation, Egypt was able to rise from adversity and catch up by giving birth to modern reformers. Reforms in education made Al Azhar a leading center for studies in the Middle East.

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Performance practice: Western: The 19th century

Evidence: — • authority: 80

Improvisation: Western art music, the 19th century

Evidence: — • authority: 80

War on Rhetoric? Aristotle’s Rhetoric in the 19th Century