starożytność: Neoteny in humans

Evidence: 100 • authority: 72

Neoteny is the retention of juvenile traits well into adulthood. In humans, this trend is greatly amplified, especially when compared to non-human primates. Neotenic features of the head include the globular skull; thinness of skull bones; the reduction of the brow ridge; the large brain; the flattened and broadened face; the hairless face; hair on (top of) the head; larger eyes; ear shape; small nose; small teeth; and the small maxilla (upper jaw) and mandible (lower jaw). Neoteny of the human body is indicated by glabrousness (hairless body). Neoteny in humans is further indicated by the limbs and body posture, with the limbs proportionately short compared to torso length; longer leg than…

Evidence: 74 • authority: 94

Despite their differing proposals on the explanation of the evolutionary process resulting in neoteny, both Lorenz [ 8 ] and Gould [ 1 ], along with many other authors such as Montagu [ 7 ], underscored the crucial role of slowed or retarded development in the evolution of human cognition. They also drew parallels between some notions of human adult cognition and the cognition of young animals, such as the presence of play behaviors in young animals and in young and adult humans. More recently, some other authors have also recognized the adaptive role of neoteny in the evolution of human cognition [ 22 ]. Decades later, Stephen Jay Gould also addressed the essential role of heterochrony in human evolution. However, he shifted the focus of selective forces from the morphological domain to the behavioral: “Neoteny has been a (probably the) major determinant of human evolution. […] Retardation as a life-history strategy for longer learning and socialization may be far more important in human evolution than any of its morphological consequences.” [ 1 ]. With this hypothesis, Gould opened the possibility for considering the behavioral aspect of human neoteny as the primary target of selective processes, leaving the morphological aspect as a byproduct. He also proposed that the evolution of development is an effective mode of creating complementarity between the organism and its environment through cognitive behavior. This proposal has two theoretical advantages: First, it releases the mutational aspects of the genetic systems from the responsibility of producing the sequence of mutations necessary to obtain preprogrammed cognitive behaviors at the right time in evolutionary human history [ 9 ]. Second, due to the emphasis it places on the analysis of development, it allows for the exploration of explanations in the proximate causes of cognitive behavior, making it possible to explain the evolutionary convergences in cognitive behavior found in several taxonomic groups that are phylogenetically and ecologically distant [ 10 ]. As in the notion of plasticity described above [ 47 ], behavioral phenotypic plasticity also has two meanings, affecting our understanding of this phenomenon. When the notion of plasticity is conceived as an alternative, it implies a connection between the purpose of the behavior and the genetic makeup of the organism. This means understanding the evolution of behavior as the process by which several adaptive solutions to specific environmental problems are fixed in the genetic baggage of organisms. In this view, the organism must be prepared to receive and decode the environmental cues to adjust to its environment.

Evidence: 50 • authority: 92

Metabolism Controls the Timing of Human Brain Development and Maturation.. Among primates the human brain is the largest in size, exhibiting a higher neuronal density and connectivity. The prolonged expansion and subsequent connectome reorganization of the human brain have been suggested to promote higher cognitive and behavioral abilities. The notable variations in cognitive functions between human and nonhuman primates do not exclusively reside in neuronal abundance and connectivity but are also linked to a higher complexity in glial cells' morphology and functions at earlier time points, during embryonic brain development. Here we discuss two features of the human brain and their recipro…

Evidence: 42 • authority: 94

Neoteny (literally “to stretch youth”; Kollmann, 1885 ) is a “paedomorphosis produced by retardation of somatic development” ( Gould, 1977 , p. 483). It is a developmental process that occurs more slowly than was the case in the subject’s ancestors and causes the retention of juvenile traits in the descendants’ adulthood. Paedomorphosis is part of a larger phenomenon called heterochrony. Heterochrony is defined as a change in the rate or timing of development, which leads to a modification of size and/or shape but also behavior ( McKinney, 1999 ). For instance, Roth, Nishikawa, Naujoks-Manteuffel, Schmidt, and Wake (1993) show how paedomorphic processes in salamanders have modified the nervous system. The Dutch anatomist Bolk (1926) made the first detailed study of the similarities between the anatomy of the Homo sapiens and that of young and unborn great apes. But Bolk’s theory and the racist and sexist overtone of his writings made the concept of neoteny more difficult to accept within the research community. While trying to “rescue Bolk’s data,” Gould (1977 , p. 356) underlines a number of paedomorphic—mostly neotenous—features that were critical to human evolution. For example, the neotenous human skull (i.e., with reference to chimpanzees, a retardation in shape and an increase in size and in the duration of growth) contributed to brain plasticity, language, and culture. Another example is found in the shape of the pelvis, which permitted an upright stance and bipedalism. Following McKinney’s (1999) definition of heterochrony, an accepted corollary of the process of neoteny is that the observed retardation of somatic development results in the retention of juvenile traits of behavior. In other words, biological neoteny induces behavioral neoteny ( Bjorklund, 1997 ; Cairns, Gariepy, & Hood, 1990 ; Gottlieb, 1992 ). For example, canine animals and longhorn sheep display different behavioral systems corresponding to different juvenile ancestral behaviors caused by biological neoteny ( Coppinger et al., 1987 ; Geist, 1971 ). Mason (1968) and Cairns (1976) suggest that attachment, with respect to humans, is partly due to neoteny, and Lorenz (1971) underlines the importance of these juvenile characteristics in the maintenance of brain plasticity. Finally, Cairns (1976) points out that neoteny partly explains both the instability of individual differences and the malleability of behaviors during childhood and more largely in every social mammal’s offspring. When it comes to consumer research, no study actually evaluates the role of neoteny in consumer behavior. However, evolutionary studies can give consumer researchers a few pointers. For instance, neoteny is a component of physical attractiveness, especially in women ( Cunningham, Roberts, Barbee, Druen, & Wu, 1995 ; Elia, 2013 ; Jones et al., 1995 ). Jones (1996) suggests that a preference for women with light skin and fair hair is due not only to political and cultural dominance but also to a preference for neotenous women who already existed in ancient Rome, along with women using cosmetics to lighten their skins. Her studies reveal that only in a few societies (including in non-Westernized populations) are neotenous traits not attractive. As for waist-to-hip ratio ( Singh, 1993 ), neotenous features such as light and smooth skin, large eyes, a small nose, and full lips are indicators of good health and reproductive potential in mate selection; they also represent desirable qualities highlighted by Western consumer society, such as youth, vivaciousness, openness, and agreeableness ( Berry & McArthur, 1985 ; Rhodes, 2006 ). Magazines such as Glamour and Cosmopolitan were found to showcase such neotenous features ( Jones, 1996 ).

Evidence: 42 • authority: 88

Behavioural Plasticity by Eastern Grey Kangaroos in Response to Human Behaviour. Sharing landscapes with humans is an increasingly fraught challenge for wildlife across the globe. While some species benefit from humans by exploiting novel opportunities (e.g., provision of resources or removal of competitors or predators), many wildlife experience harmful effects, either directly through persecution or indirectly through loss of habitat. Consequently, some species have been shown to be attracted to human presence while others avoid us. For any given population of a single species, though, the question of whether they can recognise and change their response to human presence depending on the…

Evidence: 42 • authority: 88

Genetic Variability Related Behavioral Plasticity in Pikeperch (Sander lucioperca L.) Fingerlings. Background: The relationship between genetic diversity and fitness is well understood, but few studies have investigated how behavior influences genetic diversity, or vice versa. We investigated the relationship between feeding behavior (on a pelleted diet) and genetic diversity in pikeperch, a piscivorous species. Methods: A total of 135 juvenile pikeperch from the same stock were grouped into three behavioral groups: pellet consuming, pellet refusing, and cannibalistic. Eighteen microsatellite markers were used to characterize the genetic diversity and structure of individuals. Results: The…

Evidence: 42 • authority: 88

Bridging Captive and Wild Studies: Behavioral Plasticity and Social Complexity in Theropithecus gelada. Cognitive ethology explores the ability of animals to flexibly adapt their behavior to rapid physical and social environment fluctuations. Although there is a historical dichotomy between field and captive studies, recently, a growing interest in questions that sit at the intersection of cognitive and adaptive perspectives has helped bridge this divide. By focusing on Theropithecus gelada, we discuss the three main reasons why this hybrid approach is extremely successful. First, captive and wild studies provide data at different social, spatial, and temporal scales that can be synthesized…

Evidence: 42 • authority: 72

The Lake Patzcuaro salamander, locally known as achoque (Ambystoma dumerilii), is a paedomorphic species of salamander found exclusively in Lake Pátzcuaro, a high-altitude lake in the Mexican state of Michoacán. First described in 1870 by Alfredo Dugès, the species is named in honor of the French herpetologist Auguste Duméril. However, the salamander has been used as a food source and an ingredient in traditional medicines by the Purépecha people since the Pre-Columbian era. Ambystoma dumerilii are neotenic, meaning they retain their larval characteristics throughout their entire life. This results in adults that have long, heavily filamented external gills, gill slits lined with tooth-like…

Evidence: 0 • authority: 90

Human Evolution and the Neotenous Infant | Springer Nature Link Human Evolution and the Neotenous Infant Evolutionary Perspectives on Infancy

Evidence: — • authority: 72

Drosophila melanogaster is a species of fly (an insect of the order Diptera) in the family Drosophilidae. The species is often referred to as the fruit fly or lesser fruit fly, or less commonly the "vinegar fly", "pomace fly", or "banana fly". D. melanogaster is attracted to rotting fruit and fermenting beverages and is often found in orchards, kitchens, and pubs. Starting with Charles W. Woodworth's 1901 proposal of the use of this species as a model organism, D. melanogaster continues to be widely used for biological research in genetics, physiology, microbial pathogenesis, and life history evolution. In 1947 D. melanogaster was the first animal to be launched into space. As of 2017, six…

Evidence: — • authority: 80

Cortical map plasticity in animals and humans

Evidence: — • authority: 72

Sex, more formally known as sexual intercourse, coitus, or copulation, is an intimate social activity typically involving the insertion of the erect male penis inside the female vagina and followed by thrusting motions for erotic pleasure, biological reproduction, or both. This specific type of sex is also known as vaginal intercourse (or vaginal sex). However, other forms of penetrative sexual intercourse are also possible, including anal sex (penetration of the anus by the penis), oral sex (penetration of the mouth by the penis or oral contact with or penetration of the female genitalia), fingering (sexual penetration by the fingers) and penetration by use of a dildo (especially a strap-o…