góry-i-pustynie: 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull

Evidence: 100 • authority: 72

Between March and June 2010 a series of volcanic events at Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland caused enormous disruption to air travel across Western Europe. The disruptions started over an initial period of six days in April 2010. Additional localised disruption continued into May 2010, and eruptive activity persisted until June 2010. The eruption was declared officially over in October 2010, after 3 months of inactivity, when snow on the glacier did not melt. From 14 to 20 April, ash from the volcanic eruption covered large areas of Northern Europe. About 20 countries closed their airspace to commercial jet traffic, affecting approximately 10 million travellers. Seismic activity started at the e…

Evidence: 22 • authority: 80

The effect of wind and plume height reconstruction methods on the accuracy of simple plume models — a second look at the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption

Evidence: 22 • authority: 88

Research Spotlight: Measuring the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic ash plume over Europe. The 14 April eruption of Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull sent enormous plumes of thick ash over Europe, disrupting air travel for days. Ansmann et al. report lidar (light detection and ranging) and photometer observations of the ash plume over central Europe. Their measurements, made at Leipzig, Germany, on 16 April and Munich, Germany, on the following day, provide some of the first quantitative data on the optical properties of the plume, which is the thickest volcanic ash plume ever measured.

Evidence: — • authority: 88

Inter-comparison of plume model mass eruption rate predictions based on the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption. Abstract During explosive eruptions, integral plume models are typically used to estimate real-time source parameters (e.g. mass eruption rate, plume height, and total grain size distribution) which are crucial for initiating tephra dispersal models and subsequently providing ash concentration forecasts for the aviation industry. However, uncertainties within integral models can significantly affect the accuracy of these estimates. Uncertainties may arise from the inclusion of additional parameters in more complex models, or from assumptions such as steady-state source conditions duri…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

A volcanic eruption occurs when material is expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure. Several types of volcanic eruptions have been distinguished by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series. There are three main types of volcanic eruptions. Magmatic eruptions involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward. Phreatic eruptions are driven by the superheating of steam due to the close proximity of magma. This type exhibits no magmat…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

Volcanic ash consists of fragments of rock, mineral crystals, and volcanic glass, produced during volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm (0.079 inches) in diameter. The term volcanic ash is also often loosely used to refer to all explosive eruption products (correctly referred to as tephra), including particles larger than 2 mm. Volcanic ash is formed during explosive volcanic eruptions when dissolved gases in magma expand and escape violently into the atmosphere. The force of the gases shatters the magma and propels it into the atmosphere where it solidifies into fragments of volcanic rock and glass. Ash is also produced when magma comes into contact with water during phreatomagma…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

Volcanic lightning is an electrical discharge caused by a volcanic eruption rather than from an ordinary thunderstorm. Volcanic lightning arises from colliding and fragmenting particles of volcanic ash (and sometimes ice), which generate static electricity within the volcanic plume, leading to the name dirty thunderstorm. Moist convection currents and ice formation also drive the eruption plume dynamics and can trigger volcanic lightning. Unlike ordinary thunderstorms, volcanic lightning can also occur when there are no ice crystals in the ash cloud. The earliest recorded observations of volcanic lightning are from Pliny the Younger, describing the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, "Ther…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

Katla (Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈkʰahtla] ) is an active subglacial volcano in southern Iceland. This volcano has been very active historically with at least twenty documented major eruptions since 2920 BC. In its recent history though, Katla has been less active as the last major eruption occurred in 1918. These eruptions have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of between 4 and 5 on a scale of 0 to 8. In comparison, the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption had a VEI of 4. Larger VEI-5 eruptions are comparable to Mount St. Helens 1980 eruption. These eruptions have produced very large glacial outburst floods. Several smaller (minor) events measuring VEI-1 and below have occurred since. Katla…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

The volcanic explosivity index (VEI) is a scale used to measure the size of explosive volcanic eruptions. It was devised by Christopher G. Newhall of the United States Geological Survey and Stephen Self in 1982. Volume of products, eruption cloud height, and qualitative observations (using terms ranging from "gentle" to "mega-colossal") are used to determine the explosivity value. The scale is open-ended with the largest eruptions in history given a magnitude of 8. A value of 0 is given for non-explosive eruptions, defined as less than 10,000 m3 (350,000 cu ft) of tephra ejected; and 8 representing a supervolcanic eruption that can eject 1.0×1012 m3 (240 cubic miles) of tephra and have a cl…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

Grímsvötn (Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈkrimsˌvœhtn̥] ; vötn = "waters", singular: vatn) is an active volcano with a (partially subglacial) fissure system located in Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland. The central volcano is completely subglacial and located under the northwestern side of the Vatnajökull ice cap. The subglacial caldera is at 64°25′N 17°20′W, at an elevation of 1,725 m (5,659 ft). Beneath the caldera is the magma chamber of the Grímsvötn volcano. Grímsvötn is a basaltic volcano which has the highest eruption frequency of all the volcanoes in Iceland. It has a southwest-northeast-trending fissure system. The massive climate-impacting Laki fissure eruption of 1783–1784 took plac…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

This is a list of volcanic eruptions in the 21st century with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 4 or higher, and smaller eruptions that resulted in fatalities, significant damage or disruptions. The largest volcanic eruption of the 21st century is the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunami, and the deadliest are the 2018 Volcán de Fuego eruption and the 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami.