codzienność: Computer programming

Evidence: 100 • authority: 72

Computer programming is the composition of sequences of instructions, called programs, that computers can follow to perform tasks. It typically involves designing and implementing algorithms, step-by-step specifications of procedures, by writing code in one or more programming languages. Today, programmers generally use high-level programming languages that are more easily intelligible to humans than machine code, which is directly executed by the central processing unit. Proficient programming usually requires expertise in several different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, details of programming languages and generic code libraries, specialized algorithms, and forma…

Evidence: 50 • authority: 72

In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm where programs are constructed by applying and composing functions. It is a declarative programming paradigm in which function definitions are trees of expressions that map values to other values, rather than a sequence of imperative statements which update the running state of the program. In functional programming, functions are treated as first-class entities, meaning that they can be bound to names (including local identifiers), passed as arguments, and returned from other functions, just as any other data type can. This allows programs to be written in a declarative and composable style, where small functions are com…

Evidence: 42 • authority: 92

The Potential of Artificial Intelligence in Pharmaceutical Innovation: From Drug Discovery to Clinical Trials.. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a subfield of computer science focused on developing systems that can execute tasks traditionally associated with human intelligence. AI systems work through algorithms based on rules or instructions that enable the machine to make decisions. With the advancement of science, more sophisticated AI techniques, such as machine learning and deep learning, have been developed, allowing machines to learn from large amounts of data and improve their performance over time. The pharmaceutical industry has greatly benefited from the development of this techno…

Evidence: 42 • authority: 72

C is a general-purpose programming language created in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. By design, C gives programmers relatively direct access to the features of typical CPU architectures, customized for the target instruction set. It has been and continues to be used to implement operating systems (especially kernels), device drivers, and protocol stacks, though its use in application software is decreasing. C is used on computers ranging from supercomputers to microcontrollers and embedded systems. C was initially developed as a successor to the B programming language at Bell Labs by Ritchie between 1972 and 1973. Its initial purpose was to construct utilities running on Unix, and was later appli…

Evidence: — • authority: 92

A thermodynamically favoured molecular computer.. Computers, like life, are usually out of equilibrium 1,2 . Undesired error states are thwarted by energetically costly kinetic control processes: proofreading of biological polymers, error correction in computing and redundancy in molecular programming. Unlike life as we know it, theory shows that computation can be embedded in a system relaxing to a thermodynamically favoured equilibrium state 3,4 . Machine learning and search algorithms use this idea 5,6 , although executed on non-equilibrium architectures at enormous energy cost. Physically implementing thermodynamically favoured computation requires a programmable medium amenable to ener…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

In computer programming, a macro (short for "macro instruction"; from Greek μακρο- 'long, large') is a rule or pattern that specifies how a certain input should be mapped to a replacement output. Applying a macro to an input is known as macro expansion. The input and output may be a sequence of lexical tokens or characters, or a syntax tree. Character macros are supported in software applications to make it easy to invoke common command sequences. Token and tree macros are supported in some programming languages to enable code reuse or to extend the language, sometimes for domain-specific languages. Macros are used to make a sequence of computing instructions available to the programmer as…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

In computing, machine code is data encoded and structured to control a computer's central processing unit (CPU) via its programmable interface. A computer program consists primarily of sequences of machine-code instructions. Machine code is classified as native with respect to its host CPU since it is the language that the CPU interprets directly. Some software interpreters translate the programming language that they interpret into a virtual machine code (bytecode) and process it with a P-code machine. A machine-code instruction causes the CPU to perform a specific task such as: Load a word from memory to a CPU register Execute an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) operation on one or more regist…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

In computer science, automatic programming is a type of computer programming in which some mechanism generates a computer program, to allow human programmers to write the code at a higher abstraction level. There has been little agreement on the precise definition of automatic programming, mostly because its meaning has changed over time. David Parnas, tracing the history of "automatic programming" in published research, noted that in the 1940s it described automation of the manual process of punching paper tape. Later it referred to translation of high-level programming languages like Fortran and ALGOL. One of the earliest programs identifiable as a compiler is named Autocode. Parnas concl…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

In computer programming, initialization or initialisation is the assignment of an initial value for a data object or variable. The manner in which initialization is performed depends on the programming language, as well as the type, storage class, etc., of an object to be initialized. Programming constructs which perform initialization are typically called initializers and initializer lists. Initialization is distinct from (and preceded by) declaration, although the two can sometimes be conflated in practice. The complement of initialization is finalization, which is primarily used for objects, but not variables. Initialization is done either by statically embedding the value at compile tim…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

A stored-program computer is a computer that reads the program instructions it is executing directly from fast electronic storage. This approach removes the time consuming setup costs associated with plugboard based computers, and removes the speed bottleneck imposed by the use of mechanical readers such as punched cards or punched tape. The definition is often extended with the requirement that the treatment of programs and data in memory be interchangeable or uniform.