słonie: Brain

Evidence: 100 • authority: 72

The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It consists of nervous tissue and is typically located in the head (cephalization), usually near organs for special senses such as vision, hearing, and olfaction. Being the most specialized organ, it is responsible for receiving information from the sensory nervous system, processing that information (thought, cognition, and intelligence) and the coordination of motor control (muscle activity) and the endocrine system. While invertebrate brains arise from paired segmental ganglia (each of which is only responsible for the respective body segment) of the ventral nerve cord,…

Evidence: 62 • authority: 72

Arthropods ( AR-thrə-pod) are invertebrates in the phylum Arthropoda. They possess an exoskeleton with a cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate, a body with differentiated (metameric) segments, and paired jointed appendages. In order to keep growing, they must go through stages of moulting, a process by which they shed their exoskeleton to reveal a new one. They form an extremely diverse group of up to ten million species. Haemolymph is the analogue of blood for most arthropods. An arthropod has an open circulatory system, with a body cavity called a haemocoel through which haemolymph circulates to the interior organs. Like their exteriors, the internal organs of a…

Evidence: 42 • authority: 72

The evolution of nervous systems dates back to the first development of nervous systems in animals (or metazoans). Neurons developed as specialized electrical signaling cells in multicellular animals, adapting the mechanism of action potentials present in motile single-celled and colonial eukaryotes. Primitive systems, like those found in protists, use chemical signalling for movement and sensitivity; data suggests these were precursors to modern neural cell types and their synapses. When some animals started living a mobile lifestyle and eating larger food particles externally, they developed ciliated epithelia, contractile muscles, and coordinative and sensitive neurons for it in their ou…

Evidence: 40 • authority: 72

The cerebral ganglion (CNG; also cerebral ganglia, supra(o)esophageal ganglia [SPG], arthropod brain, or microbrain) is the main part of the brain in most insect species and in some other closely related arthropods, such as myriapods and crustaceans. It receives and processes information from the first, second, and third metameres. It is connected to the gnathal ganglion (GNG), a part of the CNS in the head which may or may not be considered part of the brain. The cerebral ganglion consists of three parts, each a pair of ganglia that may be more or less pronounced, reduced, or fused depending on the genus: The protocerebrum, associated with the eyes (compound eyes and ocelli). Directly asso…

Evidence: 38 • authority: 92

An illustrated guide to dissection and abdominal anatomy of the yellow mealworm beetle.. An unprecedented increase in the number and the size of yellow mealworm beetle ( Tenebrio molitor ) farms in North America and Europe has been driven, among other factors, by the demand for sustainable proteins. Insect farming offers ecologic advantages, including lower land and water use and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. As in conventional livestock farming, veterinarians are essential to maintain insect health because disease outbreaks can reduce productivity, compromise animal welfare, and cause monetary loss. Yet, the role of veterinary diagnosticians remains limited in this emerging sector beca…

Evidence: 38 • authority: 92

The ancient dialogue between brain and body.. The brain rarely works alone to control our behavior or physiology. From the rhythm of our heartbeat to the flutter of 'butterflies' in our stomach, it is in constant dialogue with our body. This connection affects how we feel, influences what we pay attention to in our environment and ultimately affects the choices we make. Over the past several decades, research in model organisms has uncovered brain-body circuits that detect and interpret interoceptive (internal) and exteroceptive (external) signals. These studies have revealed how nervous systems integrate sensory inputs with essential homeostatic processes, such as hunger, thirst, reproduct…

Evidence: 33 • authority: 92

Parasite-Induced Changes in the Nervous System of the Shore Crab <i>Hemigrapsus sanguineus</i>.. Trematodes are a class of parasitic flatworms with complex life cycles involving multiple hosts. They can influence the physiology and behavior of their intermediate hosts to improve the efficiency of transmission to definitive hosts, including by increasing host mortality. However, the mechanisms of their effect on the crustacean nervous system leading to neuronal dysregulation and its consequences have not been sufficiently elucidated. This study investigated the effects of infection by metacercariae of the trematode Cercaria fluviocinguli on the serotonin (5-HT) immunoreactivity,…