starożytność: Science

Evidence: 100 • authority: 72

Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable explanations about nature and society. It is driven by the scientific method: an empirical cycle that typically involves making observations, producing hypotheses, testing them with evidence, and drawing conclusions. Science encompasses this process and the body of knowledge it produces, which the scientific community continuously challenges, validates, and organises. Modern science is typically divided into two major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, logic, mathe…

Evidence: 51 • authority: 80

Science Deified and Science Defied: The Historical Significance of Science in Western Culture from the Bronze Age to the Beginnings of the Modern Era ca. 3500 B.C. to ca A.D. 1640

Evidence: 44 • authority: 88

Late Bronze Age Glass Production at Qantir-Piramesses, Egypt. It has been uncertain whether the glass produced during the Late Bronze Age (LBA) originated in Egypt or Mesopotamia. Here we present evidence for the production of glass from its raw materials in the eastern Nile Delta during the LBA. Glass was made in workshops that were separate from where the production of objects took place. The initial melting of the raw materials to semi-finished glass was done at temperatures of 900° to 950°C, followed by coloration and ingot production at 1000° to 1100°C.

Evidence: 38 • authority: 88

MODERNIZATION OF HISTORICAL SCIENCE IN INDEPENDENT KAZAKHSTAN. The article analyzes the development of historical studies in Kazakhstan in the period after the disintegration of the USSR. The article presents new approaches, achievements and shortcomings in the development of science, the activities of the main research centers and educational institutions, scientific discoveries that have expanded the horizons of history in Kazakhstan. It is shown that in the post-Soviet period, the historical science of Kazakhstan has gone through a difficult and ambiguous path of transformation. The nature of research has changed, which was expressed in methodological approaches and methods. In addition,…

Evidence: 38 • authority: 80

Eiland crucibles and the earliest relative dating for tin and bronze working in southern Africa

Evidence: 38 • authority: 72

Prehistoric Egypt and Predynastic Egypt was the period of time starting at the first human occupation of the region and ending at the First Dynasty of Egypt around 3100 BC. At the end of prehistory, "Predynastic Egypt" is traditionally defined as the period from the final part of the Neolithic period beginning c. 6210 BC to the end of the Naqada III period c. 3000 BC. The dates of the Predynastic period were first defined before widespread archaeological excavation of Egypt took place, and recent finds indicating a gradual Predynastic development have led to controversy over when exactly the Predynastic period ended. Thus, various terms such as "Protodynastic period", "Zero Dynasty" or "Dyn…

Evidence: 38 • authority: 72

The proto-cuneiform script was a system of proto-writing that emerged in Mesopotamia c. 3350–3200 BC (during the Uruk period), eventually developing into the early cuneiform script used in the region's Early Dynastic I period. It arose from the token-based system that had already been in use across the region in preceding millennia. Other precursors of this system include clay bullae containing tokens, and numerical tablets using only numeral signs. Those devices were used in the institutions of Mesopotamia and western Iran during the 4th millennium BC, in order to record administrative operations. The proto-cuneiform subsequently appeared in southern Mesopotamia, during the 34th century BC…

Evidence: 38 • authority: 72

The evolution of languages or history of language includes the evolution, divergence and development of languages throughout time, as reconstructed based on glottochronology, comparative linguistics, written records and other historical linguistics techniques. The origin of language is a hotly contested topic, with some languages tentatively traced back to the Paleolithic. However, archaeological and written records only extend the history of language into ancient times and the Neolithic. The distribution of languages has changed substantially over time. Major regional languages like Elamite, Sogdian, Koine Greek, or Nahuatl in ancient, post-classical and early modern times have been overta…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloids (such as arsenic or silicon). These additions produce a range of alloys some of which are harder than copper alone or have other useful properties, such as strength, ductility, or machinability. The archaeological period during which bronze was the hardest metal in widespread use is known as the Bronze Age. The beginning of the Bronze Age in western Eurasia is conventionally dated to the mid-4th millennium BCE and early 2nd millennium BCE in China; elsewher…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

The three-age system is the division of human prehistory (with some overlap into the historical periods in a few regions) into three time-periods: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, although the concept may also refer to other tripartite divisions of historic time periods. In some systems, a fourth Copper Age is added as between the Stone Age and Bronze Age. The Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages are also known collectively as the Metal Ages. In history, archaeology and physical anthropology, the three-age system is a methodological concept adopted during the 19th century according to which artefacts and events of late prehistory and early history could be broadly ordered into a reco…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

The Bronze Age is an archaeological and anthropological term defining a phase in the development of material culture among ancient societies in Asia, the Near East and Europe. An ancient civilisation or culture is deemed part of the Bronze Age if it either produced bronze by smelting its own copper and alloying it with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or traded other items for bronze from producing areas elsewhere. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of the three-age system, following the Stone Age and preceding the Iron Age. Conceived as a global era, the Bronze Age follows the Neolithic ("New Stone") period, with a transition period between the two known as the Chalcolithic ("copp…

Evidence: — • authority: 72

The civilization of Mesopotamia ranges from the earliest human occupation in the Paleolithic period up to Late antiquity. This history is pieced together from evidence retrieved from archaeological excavations and, after the introduction of writing in the late 4th millennium BC, an increasing amount of historical sources. Mesopotamia has been home to many of the oldest major civilizations, entering history from the Early Bronze Age, for which reason it is often called a cradle of civilization.